On a cold winter's morning 60 years ago today, 271 men and women huddled together in New Delhi's Legislative Building. As members of the Constituent Assembly, they had spent the past three years debating a governing charter for India. Together, they had produced the world's longest national basic law. They now assembled for their final session and could barely contain their excitement. Before them lay two large blue books with the Constitution's 90,000 words carefully handwritten in English and Hindi. The books were also illustrated with events from Indian history exquisitely prepared by the great national artist, Nandalal Bose of Santiniketan.
The Assembly was established under the “cabinet mission plan” after Prime Minister Clement Atlee concluded that Great Britain could no longer rule India. Under the mission's plan, legislative elections were held in every British India province with eligible voters having to satisfy certain property qualifications. Provincial legislators then elected the Assembly's members under a formula, which ensured that each member represented approximately one million people. Members were also elected or nominated to represent the native princely states.
In the Assembly, the Congress commanded a significant majority. Yet, the body's membership remained heterogeneous and diverse because the Congress high command strove to ensure that different shades of opinion were adequately represented. With remarkable foresight, the party also arranged for the election of several non-Congressmen, including B.R. Ambedkar, who had repeatedly clashed with Congress leaders; K.M. Munshi, who had left the party; and S.P. Mookerjee, the Hindu Mahasabha leader. Despite some inevitable differences, they worked closely with the Congress's stalwarts, Nehru, Patel, and Azad. This “team of rivals”, to use the American historian Doris Kearns Godwin's phrase, later ensured that the Constitution quickly acquired widespread legitimacy and popular acceptance.
Unique character
There were no foreign consultants involved in framing the Constitution. This is in sharp contrast to the considerable external influence evident in other contemporaneously written national charters, notably the post-World War Japanese Constitution, or closer to home, the first Sri Lankan Constitution of 1946. Our founders were adamant that Indians should have full control over the drafting process. They accomplished that objective with the assistance of several lawyer-members including Nehru, Prasad, Ambedkar, and Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar and eminent non-partisan experts, such as N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, a veteran administrator and Jerome D'Souza, a Jesuit educationalist, who had also joined the Assembly.
The Assembly's members were initially divided into several committees to study such specific topics as fundamental rights, minorities, and centre-state relations. Relying on their inputs, the Assembly's Constitutional Adviser B.N. Rau, a brilliant ICS officer and judge, prepared an initial draft constitution in February 1948. Rau's draft was further revised by Ambedkar's drafting committee and issued in November 1948. The Assembly took almost a year to discuss it. Members insisted on reviewing every clause, and in some cases, every word and sentence. More than 2,000 amendments were considered and several were accepted. The house also received a large number of comments and suggestions on the draft from societies, chambers of commerce, government agencies, academics, and ordinary citizens. The drafting committee produced a revised draft, which was eventually adopted by the Assembly, with some changes, as the Constitution on November 26, 1949.
When the Assembly convened for its final session on January 24, 1950, its secretary, H.V.R. Iengar announced that Rajendra Prasad had been elected unopposed as India's first President. After accepting members' congratulations, Prasad announced that Jana Gana Mana would be the National Anthem and that Vande Mataram would have equal status. He then invited members to sign the Constitution's calligraphic copies. Nehru was the first to do so and members from Madras followed him. After the last member had signed the books, Prasad decided that he, too, must do so. But, rather than signing behind the last signatory, he clumsily inserted his name in the small space between the last line of the text and Nehru's signature.
Two days later, the Constitution became fully effective with “the fanfare of trumpets, the booming of guns and scenes of rejoicing.” At a ceremony held in Rashtrapathi Bhavan's Durbar Hall, Governor General Rajagopalachari solemnly proclaimed India as a “Sovereign, Democratic Republic”. He then exchanged seats with Prasad, and Chief Justice Kania swore-in Prasad as the first President. Twenty years after the Lahore Congress's Poorna Swaraj declaration, India had finally reclaimed its own sovereignty and formally severed legal links with Great Britain. Later that afternoon, Prasad rode in a carriage built originally for Viceroy Hardinge to witness a ceremonial parade at the Irwin Stadium.
Significant step
In many ways, India's birth as a republic in 1950 was more significant than its emergence as an independent dominion in 1947. First, in a completely radical break with the past, the Indian people chose to place themselves under a supreme law instead of being ruled by a monarch's diktat. They adopted a system of governance that meticulously defines the powers and responsibilities of the three branches and regulates relations between the centre and the states. Second, the Constitution is the bedrock of India's parliamentary democracy. It ensures that the governments are made and unmade through universal adult franchise supervised by an independent election commission. Third, through its unprecedented abolition of untouchability, the Constitution serves as a powerful emancipation proclamation ending centuries of caste-based discrimination and social exclusion. Its lofty Directive Principles of State Policy further underscores its commitment to social justice. Fourth, the Constitution expressly guarantees every citizen important fundamental rights, which may be subject to only certain restrictions. These rights include the ability to freely speak and express oneself; the freedom of conscience and to profess, practise, and even propagate a religion; basic protections against arbitrary arrest and detention by authorities, and various cultural and educational guarantees.
In an editorial on January 26, 1950, The Hindu welcomed the new republic's creation but emphasised the need to keep “a crusading spirit alive”. It pointed out that the Constitution provides a “shell of democracy” and that it is up to the Indian people to breathe life into it. It reminded readers that the German Weimar Republic had also fashioned an admirable constitution. But that charter became “waste paper” because it lacked “fire in its belly”. It was that fire, The Hindu argued, which had to be kindled if India was to establish a fair, equitable, and viable polity. Those words ring loudly this day as they did 60 years ago.
Monday, January 25, 2010
Useful Websites
For World Cinema - http://konangalfilmsociety.blogspot.com/
For World Literature - http://almostisland.com/
For Studies Online - http://academicearth.org
For World Literature - http://almostisland.com/
For Studies Online - http://academicearth.org
Sunday, January 10, 2010
A millenium of magnificence
The Thanjavur “Big Temple” (Peria Kovil) is one thousand years old this year, 2010. Rajaraja Chola I commissioned this greatest edifice of Tamil history and performed the sacred dedication of the temple in the year 1010, the 25th year of his reign. It was the jewel-in-the-crown of Rajaraja, an extraordinarily powerful king, a grand monarch with a style of his own, a conqueror who also understood art and architecture, and a true devotee of Siva. It is a matter of pride that a Tamil king built the finest example of Tamil architecture, stupendous in proportion, yet simple in design. Siva in this temple is known as Brihadisvara — the Lord of the Universe. A gigantic stone “lingam” fills the sanctum sanctorum, sheltered by a vimanam (towering roof) which pierces the sky at 216 feet. One can gaze with awe at this majestic structure from a distance as one drives towards Thanjavur. However many times one has seen it, one cannot help but hold one's breath in amazement. And as you enter its precincts, this temple never fails to humble you, for, such is its magnificence. It is the perfect tribute to the Almighty, ordered by a great king and executed by his subjects who contributed to its building in more ways than one. To this day, it stands tall as a reminder of who we are in the history books of culture, art, architecture, religion, language, governance and trade.
The temple occupies an area measuring about 750 feet by 400 feet, in a fort, surrounded by a moat. It is a marvel of engineering, considering the technology of those ancient times. The towering vimanam is built up with stones with bonding and notching, without the use of mortar. The topmost stone, weighing about 80 tons, is still a matter of discussion for engineers who are baffled as to how the builders lifted it to that height without the help of modern contrivances. A charming tale is told about a ramp being built from a village — Sarapallam — four miles away, from where the giant stone was pulled up by elephants!
Representative craftsmanship
The details of the stone work of this imposing vimanam are representative of the masterly craftsmanship of South Indian artisans. The shilpi (sculptor) and the sthapathi (architect) came together to create their fanciful abode for Shiva. Naturally, the shape had to echo Mount Kailash itself. In its perfect geometry and distinct clarity of lines, this tower is unbeatable.
Every feature of the temple is larger than life — the monolithic Nandi, the gigantic (12-feet high) Dwarapalakas (guardian deities) and the sculptures in the niches around the central shrine. They are distinguished by an elegant simplicity in lines and ornamentation. The faces of the figures like Dakshinamurthi and Yogalakshmi are beatitude in essence. Inside the vimanam, there is a hidden corridor surrounding the sanctum. Rarely open to visitors, this is a treasure trove of Chola painting and sculpture. The walls of this cave-like corridor were plastered with lime and used as a large canvas for the paintings. Perhaps the subjects chosen were dear to the great king's heart, for, he was a staunch Shaivite, a great warrior who took pride in his victories, and was responsible for the renaissance of the Bhakti movement through the spread of the songs of the saints ( Thevaram). The paintings, which have survived time and a 17th century coat of paint, are exquisite in detail and colour, and proportion. The colours in the paintings are subdued, the lines are delicate and the expressions vivid and true to life. Figures of Dakshinamurthi, Nataraja in Thillai, surrounded by celestials, dancers and saints in a celebration, and Tripuranthaka, the gigantic warrior, are masterpieces of Chola painting. The story of Sundaramurthi Nayanar reaching Kailash on a white elephant is depicted on another wall. The most telling of all is the portraiture of Raja Raja with his Guru Karuvur Devar. It was Karuvur Devar, the wily administrator, who master-minded the building of the temple, and fittingly he has a special shrine dedicated to him in the outer courtyard of the temple. While the sculptures of Shiva in this corridor are imposing and colossal, the fine series of 81 karanas (dance poses) are superb illustrations of the Natya Sastra. These figures are much bigger than the dance figures in Chidambaram and other temples. The renowned historian C. Sivaramamurthi averred that this group is unique as it depicts Shiva himself dancing.
Plenty of documentation
Perhaps the most exciting aspect of this temple is the vast number of inscriptions on its walls which record details of Raja Raja's reign as well as that of his successors. They reveal that Raja Raja endowed a large number of villages, money and cattle to the temple for its maintenance, daily worship, festivals, singing of devotional songs and dancing. He and his queens presented fantastic gold and gem set jewels to the temple. The king's donations, as well as those of his favourite queen Lokamahadevi, and his sister Kundavai are recorded on a slab close to the sanctum. Among the most noteworthy inscriptions is the one about the two streets given over to the occupation of the 400 Devadasis who were pressed into the service of the temple from many surrounding temples of the region. Their names, places of origin, the door numbers of the houses they occupied are also part of the details inscribed. From the inscriptions we gather that the king, his queens, and their relatives set the example followed by the nobility, the merchants and even soldiers, to return to the people what was collected by taxes etc., by erecting irrigation canals, hospitals, schools, granaries and so on.
One of the best bronze images of the period is that of Nataraja, referred to as “Adavallan” in this temple. Raja Raja named the currency of his reign, a coin, Adavallan.
Over time, many additions and improvements took place in this temple. Sevappa Nayak, the first of his dynasty who ruled Thanjavur, built the shrine for Murugan (Subrahamanya) as an integral part of the temple. It is a beautiful, elaborately-carved stone structure, a designer's delight. To copy the un-repeated designs on each of the short pillars of this shrine would take an artist weeks if not months. One can just imagine how long the stone chiseller would have taken to complete each piece. Facing this shrine one can also see a mandapamwhich houses a Maratha period portrait gallery. Done as mural paintings but in the style now known as “Tanjore painting” with gold leaf embossing, the portraits of Serfoji, his queen and other royals are a feast of colour.
Magical pull
One can spend a whole day in the Big Temple, and still want to come back to marvel at every detail of its beauty. Many kings had built temples to Shiva on the banks of the Kaveri. Many saints have sung in praise of these deities. But there is only one temple to Brihadisvara, and it stands tall a thousand years after a devotee-king climbed a ladder with a copper pot ( kalasam) anointed with holy water from all the sacred rivers, to dedicate it to history. Our history!
The temple occupies an area measuring about 750 feet by 400 feet, in a fort, surrounded by a moat. It is a marvel of engineering, considering the technology of those ancient times. The towering vimanam is built up with stones with bonding and notching, without the use of mortar. The topmost stone, weighing about 80 tons, is still a matter of discussion for engineers who are baffled as to how the builders lifted it to that height without the help of modern contrivances. A charming tale is told about a ramp being built from a village — Sarapallam — four miles away, from where the giant stone was pulled up by elephants!
Representative craftsmanship
The details of the stone work of this imposing vimanam are representative of the masterly craftsmanship of South Indian artisans. The shilpi (sculptor) and the sthapathi (architect) came together to create their fanciful abode for Shiva. Naturally, the shape had to echo Mount Kailash itself. In its perfect geometry and distinct clarity of lines, this tower is unbeatable.
Every feature of the temple is larger than life — the monolithic Nandi, the gigantic (12-feet high) Dwarapalakas (guardian deities) and the sculptures in the niches around the central shrine. They are distinguished by an elegant simplicity in lines and ornamentation. The faces of the figures like Dakshinamurthi and Yogalakshmi are beatitude in essence. Inside the vimanam, there is a hidden corridor surrounding the sanctum. Rarely open to visitors, this is a treasure trove of Chola painting and sculpture. The walls of this cave-like corridor were plastered with lime and used as a large canvas for the paintings. Perhaps the subjects chosen were dear to the great king's heart, for, he was a staunch Shaivite, a great warrior who took pride in his victories, and was responsible for the renaissance of the Bhakti movement through the spread of the songs of the saints ( Thevaram). The paintings, which have survived time and a 17th century coat of paint, are exquisite in detail and colour, and proportion. The colours in the paintings are subdued, the lines are delicate and the expressions vivid and true to life. Figures of Dakshinamurthi, Nataraja in Thillai, surrounded by celestials, dancers and saints in a celebration, and Tripuranthaka, the gigantic warrior, are masterpieces of Chola painting. The story of Sundaramurthi Nayanar reaching Kailash on a white elephant is depicted on another wall. The most telling of all is the portraiture of Raja Raja with his Guru Karuvur Devar. It was Karuvur Devar, the wily administrator, who master-minded the building of the temple, and fittingly he has a special shrine dedicated to him in the outer courtyard of the temple. While the sculptures of Shiva in this corridor are imposing and colossal, the fine series of 81 karanas (dance poses) are superb illustrations of the Natya Sastra. These figures are much bigger than the dance figures in Chidambaram and other temples. The renowned historian C. Sivaramamurthi averred that this group is unique as it depicts Shiva himself dancing.
Plenty of documentation
Perhaps the most exciting aspect of this temple is the vast number of inscriptions on its walls which record details of Raja Raja's reign as well as that of his successors. They reveal that Raja Raja endowed a large number of villages, money and cattle to the temple for its maintenance, daily worship, festivals, singing of devotional songs and dancing. He and his queens presented fantastic gold and gem set jewels to the temple. The king's donations, as well as those of his favourite queen Lokamahadevi, and his sister Kundavai are recorded on a slab close to the sanctum. Among the most noteworthy inscriptions is the one about the two streets given over to the occupation of the 400 Devadasis who were pressed into the service of the temple from many surrounding temples of the region. Their names, places of origin, the door numbers of the houses they occupied are also part of the details inscribed. From the inscriptions we gather that the king, his queens, and their relatives set the example followed by the nobility, the merchants and even soldiers, to return to the people what was collected by taxes etc., by erecting irrigation canals, hospitals, schools, granaries and so on.
One of the best bronze images of the period is that of Nataraja, referred to as “Adavallan” in this temple. Raja Raja named the currency of his reign, a coin, Adavallan.
Over time, many additions and improvements took place in this temple. Sevappa Nayak, the first of his dynasty who ruled Thanjavur, built the shrine for Murugan (Subrahamanya) as an integral part of the temple. It is a beautiful, elaborately-carved stone structure, a designer's delight. To copy the un-repeated designs on each of the short pillars of this shrine would take an artist weeks if not months. One can just imagine how long the stone chiseller would have taken to complete each piece. Facing this shrine one can also see a mandapamwhich houses a Maratha period portrait gallery. Done as mural paintings but in the style now known as “Tanjore painting” with gold leaf embossing, the portraits of Serfoji, his queen and other royals are a feast of colour.
Magical pull
One can spend a whole day in the Big Temple, and still want to come back to marvel at every detail of its beauty. Many kings had built temples to Shiva on the banks of the Kaveri. Many saints have sung in praise of these deities. But there is only one temple to Brihadisvara, and it stands tall a thousand years after a devotee-king climbed a ladder with a copper pot ( kalasam) anointed with holy water from all the sacred rivers, to dedicate it to history. Our history!
Friday, January 8, 2010
Body,Mind and Soul
I had a serious thought about this three components of a human - Body,Mind and Soul.Though only the existence of body can be ascertained,existence of mind could still be significantly explained with the help of brain which controls the senses.It is because the body is material,it is subject to space and time and hence has a defined structure.Though mind is immaterial,it could easily be explained(or at least believed to be explained)with the help of brain.The concepts of mind to me is more complex since it constitutes memory,thoughts,senses and many more.The entire structure of mind is more complex.Since this is not the thought that struck me I do not want to discuss as this as the subject matter.
Presuming soul does exists(i mean soul here by a vast energy/subconscious mind and i do not exactly mean it in a religious way),I am trying to argue what prevents it to stop the brain building an egoistic center,"I".Any human asked to identify himself will identify his body which is sensed by the brain.I think the humanity took a wrong turn centuries ago by identifying the body and building a body centered ego called "I" then dividing his self from others.
My Questions:
But what could have made this brain to do this?
If soul exists(I am pessimistic here)why did this allow mind to take the entire process of thinking?
Does this mean that soul is inferior to mind(even if it exists)?
Presuming soul does exists(i mean soul here by a vast energy/subconscious mind and i do not exactly mean it in a religious way),I am trying to argue what prevents it to stop the brain building an egoistic center,"I".Any human asked to identify himself will identify his body which is sensed by the brain.I think the humanity took a wrong turn centuries ago by identifying the body and building a body centered ego called "I" then dividing his self from others.
My Questions:
But what could have made this brain to do this?
If soul exists(I am pessimistic here)why did this allow mind to take the entire process of thinking?
Does this mean that soul is inferior to mind(even if it exists)?
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